Which Of The Following Is A Limitation Of Wind Power?

Intermittency

One limitation of wind power is its intermittent nature, meaning wind speeds fluctuate frequently and power generation is inconsistent.1 The output of wind turbines depends on the speed and variability of the wind, which can change significantly even within minutes.2 This unpredictability and variability makes it challenging to integrate large amounts of wind power into the electrical grid and match supply with demand.3

Unlike traditional power plants that can be dispatched as needed, wind power can suddenly drop off when the wind dies down. Grid operators must be prepared to ramp up alternative energy sources when wind generation decreases to avoid blackouts and disruptions. Intermittency requires maintaining adequate baseload capacity from other sources like natural gas and hydropower.

Land Usage

One limitation of wind power is the large land areas required for utility-scale wind farms. According to a report by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), wind turbines themselves only occupy a small portion of the total land area of a wind power plant. The total land area includes access roads, substations, and spacing between turbines (Denholm 2009).

For example, an analysis by the Union of Concerned Scientists found that generating 20% of U.S. electricity from wind would require land areas on the order of 0.6% of the U.S. land area. However, the actual footprint of turbine foundations, access roads, and other infrastructure would only be a fraction of this total area. The remaining area can still be used for farming, ranching, and other purposes (Clemmer 2023).

Overall, while wind power does require sizable land areas for utility-scale development, the actual footprint is relatively small. With proper siting and land use planning, wind power’s land requirements need not be a major limitation.

Upfront Costs

One of the biggest limitations of wind power is the high upfront costs required for construction and infrastructure. Building a utility-scale wind farm requires significant capital investment before any energy can be generated and revenue earned. According to Windustry, wind turbines with capacities between 100-250 kW can cost $3,000 to $4,000 per kW. For a 2 MW turbine, that translates to $6 million to $8 million upfront. Larger turbines over 2.5 MW can cost over $4 million each.

In addition to the wind turbines themselves, there are costs for roads, electrical equipment, land leases, permitting, grid connections, and more. The transmission lines to connect the wind farm to the grid are expensive to construct. Transformers, power inverters, substations, and other balance-of-system costs also add up. According to Today’s Homeowner, transformers alone can cost $15,000 to $50,000 per turbine.

For residential wind turbines, the upfront cost is lower but still substantial at $3,000 to $8,000 for a 10 kW machine to power a home. Compared to solar power with lower equipment costs, wind power’s high initial investment makes the economics more challenging.

Transmission

One of the major limitations of wind power is transmitting the electricity from the wind farms to cities and towns where the demand for power is located. Good wind sites with strong and consistent winds are often located far from population centers that require electricity, so new transmission infrastructure is needed to deliver the power. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, “Transmission lines must be built to bring electricity from wind farms to load centers” (Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy). Building this transmission infrastructure can add significant cost and complexity to wind projects.

Long distance high voltage transmission lines are needed to minimize energy losses over distances. However, constructing new transmission corridors faces challenges like obtaining rights-of-way, environmental concerns, permitting issues, and cost. Complex coordination is also required between multiple utilities and grid operators when transmitting over long distances. According to Stantec, offshore wind farms in particular face unique transmission challenges as undersea cables are needed to bring the power to shore (Challenges of Offshore Wind Transmission). Overall, the transmission infrastructure required for wind power can be a significant limitation.

Wildlife Impact

One of the main concerns surrounding wind turbines is the risk they pose to birds and bats through collisions. Studies by organizations like the U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service have shown that wind turbines do cause bird and bat deaths from collisions. The extent of the impact depends on factors like turbine design, location, and wildlife abundance and migration patterns.

Birds are especially at risk because they can get struck directly by turbine blades. Bats are affected because the change in air pressure near spinning turbines can damage their lungs. Researchers are still working to fully understand the magnitude of the risks and how to effectively mitigate the impacts through methods like improved turbine design and strategic facility placement.

Noise Pollution

One limitation of wind power is the potential noise pollution generated by wind turbines. According to the Department of Energy, land-based utility-scale wind turbines produce sounds in the range of 35-45 decibels when heard from 300 meters away (https://windexchange.energy.gov/projects/sound). This is roughly equivalent to the background noise in a library.

The spinning blades create a “swishing” or “whooshing” sound as they cut through the air that can be considered disruptive for people living nearby, especially at night when natural background noise is lower. The American Wind Energy Association reports that older wind turbine models can also emit tonal or humming sounds due to mechanical components (https://www.maine.gov/dacf/lupc/projects/windpower/redington/redingtonrevised/Documents/Section05_Sound/AWEA_Turbine_Noise_FAQ.pdf).

According to GE, background noise ranges from 40-45 decibels in most places. This means wind turbine noise may not be noticeable if there is sufficient ambient background noise (https://www.ge.com/news/reports/how-loud-is-a-wind-turbine). But for residents living very close to turbines, the sounds can potentially be loud enough to become a nuisance.

Aesthetic Concerns

Some consider wind farms visually unappealing and believe they detract from natural landscapes. The large turbines and spinning blades can be seen as industrial blights on the countryside by some people who prefer natural vistas^[1]. Conservationists have argued that wind turbines represent an “enduring threat to nature” that disturbs scenic views^[2]. The visual impact of wind farms is subjective, but there are concerns that they disrupt viewsheds and scenic landscapes that some find visually displeasing^[3].

Shadow Flicker

Shadow flicker is an effect that can occur with wind turbines when the sun passes behind the rotating blades, causing a flickering shadow. As the blades spin, they periodically cast shadows through windows of nearby homes and buildings, creating a strobe effect (1). This repetitive flicker of light and shadow can be annoying and cause headaches for some people if a turbine is sited too close to homes (2).

The potential for shadow flicker depends on several factors: the sun’s position and elevation throughout the day, wind direction, turbine placement in relation to buildings, turbine tower height, wind speed, weather conditions, time of day and year, and any vegetation or geographical obstructions that may block the flickering shadows (1). Shadow flicker is most noticeable inside buildings, where the contrast between light and dark shadows is greatest.

Studies recommend turbines be sited over 1,000 feet away from occupied buildings to minimize nuisance shadow flicker (2). Shadow flicker is typically modeled and assessed in wind farm planning stages to mitigate any potential issues. Solutions include carefully orienting turbines, using vegetation buffers, or installing automated shadow flicker detection systems that can slow or stop turbines during times when shadow flicker would occur (1).

Overall, with proper turbine siting and impact assessment, shadow flicker can be minimized so it does not create adverse effects for nearby homes and people.

(1) https://windexchange.energy.gov/projects/shadow-flicker

(2) https://cleanpower.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Final_Shadow-Flicker-Fact-Sheet.pdf

Energy Storage

Wind power suffers from intermittency, meaning energy generation fluctuates based on wind availability. This creates challenges in providing consistent power to the grid. Energy storage offers a solution by capturing excess energy when the wind blows strongly and supplying power when wind is insufficient. However, adding storage increases costs.

According to a NASA study, wind farms could potentially store up to 72 hours of energy to smooth output. Battery storage is a common approach, allowing grid operators to fill gaps during lulls in wind. However, batteries remain expensive. A 2019 NREL report found adding just 4 hours of lithium-ion storage would increase wind project costs by up to 25%.

Other storage solutions include pumped hydropower and compressed air. But geologic storage also has limitations in many regions. Overall, storage technologies continue advancing but have not yet achieved cost-competitiveness at scale.

Offshore Challenges

Offshore wind farms face greater costs and engineering challenges compared to onshore wind due to the marine environment. Constructing turbines offshore is more complex, and requires specialized ships and equipment.¹ Maintenance is also more difficult far from shore, especially in rough seas.²

Additionally, transmitting the electricity from offshore turbines to land is a major hurdle. Long undersea transmission cables are needed, which are expensive to manufacture and install.² Protecting the cables from damage is also a concern.

Furthermore, it’s difficult to fully predict the effects of offshore turbines on marine environments and wildlife. More research is needed to understand these impacts.³