What Energy Is Solar Sources?

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun that is harnessed using a range of technologies. It’s an abundant renewable energy source that can help reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Solar is the fastest growing renewable energy source worldwide and an important part of the transition to clean energy.

Harnessing solar energy doesn’t create greenhouse gas emissions and helps mitigate climate change. Solar technologies have also become more efficient and affordable in recent years. The main solar energy technologies include:

Photovoltaics – Convert sunlight into electricity using solar panels.

Concentrated solar power – Use reflective surfaces like mirrors to concentrate sunlight that heats a liquid to drive turbines.
Solar heating and cooling – Use the sun’s thermal energy with collectors, pumps and heat exchangers for water heating, space heating, and air conditioning.

Solar energy is used in homes, businesses, utilities, and more. It offers a clean and renewable way to meet energy needs today and into the future.

Table of Contents

Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic (PV) cells, also known as solar cells, are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity. PV cells are typically made from silicon and come in a variety of types, including monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film.

The photovoltaic effect causes the generation of voltage and electric current when the PV cell is exposed to sunlight. Photons from the sunlight hit the PV cell and knock electrons loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material. The freed electrons then flow through the PV cell, generating electricity that can be used to power electronic devices or fed into the grid.

Monocrystalline silicon cells are made from a single cylindrical silicon crystal and tend to have the highest efficiencies, typically around 15-20%. However, they are more expensive than other types. Polycrystalline silicon cells are made from fragments of silicon crystals melted together and have slightly lower efficiency around 13-16%, but are cheaper.

Thin-film PV cells utilize very thin layers of photosensitive materials on substrates like glass or plastic. While less efficient at 6-13%, thin-film cells can be flexible and have seen increased use in building-integrated photovoltaics. Other thin-film materials beyond silicon are also being researched and developed.

Overall, PV cells provide a clean, renewable way to harness power from the sun. Improvements in efficiency and manufacturing continue to lower costs and expand applications for solar photovoltaics.

Concentrated Solar Power

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver. The concentrated light heats up the receiver, which contains a heat-transfer fluid that is used to produce steam. The steam then spins a turbine to generate electricity.

There are several CSP technologies that concentrate sunlight in different ways:

Parabolic trough systems use long parabolic mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube running along the focal point. The tube contains oil or other fluid that absorbs the heat.

Power tower systems use a field of flat mirrors called heliostats to redirect and concentrate sunlight onto a central receiver located on top of a tower. The receiver contains molten salt that captures the heat.
Parabolic dish systems use dish-shaped parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver at the focal point. The receiver transfers heat to an engine to produce power.
Fresnel reflectors use long rows of flat or slightly curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto tubes of fluid above.

The main advantage of CSP is its ability to include thermal storage, allowing solar energy to be stored for use when needed. CSP plants can store solar energy in the form of heat by heating up molten salts. The salts retain the heat and can generate steam at night or during cloudy weather. Adding storage provides flexibility and increases the value of solar electricity.

However, CSP has higher capital costs compared to solar photovoltaics. The complex system of mirrors and receivers also requires careful maintenance. CSP works best in areas with high direct sunlight. Overall, CSP enables renewable solar power with storage capabilities, but the technology is currently less widespread than PV.

Solar Heating & Cooling

Solar heating and cooling utilizes the sun’s energy to provide thermal energy for water heating, space heating, cooling, and even electricity generation. Solar thermal collectors are used to absorb and convert sunlight into usable heat. There are several types of solar collectors used for heating applications:

Flat-plate collectors – These are insulated, weatherproof boxes that contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic covers. They heat liquid or air at temperatures less than 180°F.

Evacuated-tube collectors – Glass tubes contain a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. The air is removed from the space between the tubes to reduce heat loss. These collectors can achieve higher temperatures than flat-plate collectors.

Integral collector-storage systems – These systems have storage integrated into the collector, improving heat capture. The storage medium can be water, masonry, or phase-change salts.

Solar water heating systems use solar collectors to heat water for domestic hot water usage and pool heating. In direct circulation systems, pumps circulate household water through collectors. In indirect systems, a heat-transfer fluid is heated and passed through a heat exchanger to heat water. Passive systems rely on gravity and natural convection for circulation.

Passive solar heating uses building design elements to collect, store, and distribute solar energy for space heating. Strategies include proper building orientation, large south-facing windows, thermal mass materials like concrete or tile floors, and overhangs that block summer sun.

Passive solar cooling techniques like shading, natural ventilation, and thermal mass modulation can reduce heat gain and cooling loads. Evaporative coolers add moisture for evaporative cooling.

The pros of solar heating/cooling include reduced energy bills, environmental benefits, reliability, and the ability to work in remote locations. Initial costs can be high compared to conventional systems, but solar thermal systems offer a relatively rapid payback.

Residential Applications

Solar energy is increasingly being adopted by homeowners to power their houses. Installing solar panels on the roof or other parts of the home allows homeowners to generate their own electricity and reduce energy bills. Some key residential applications of solar energy include:

Solar Roofs – Companies like Tesla and CertainTeed offer solar shingles or tiles that seamlessly integrate into a home’s roofing system while generating electricity. This is an aesthetically pleasing option for homeowners.

Solar Panels – Traditional solar panels can be installed on rooftops or ground-mounted in the yard. Panels are typically connected to an inverter that converts the electricity into AC current used by home appliances and lighting.

Community Solar – Homeowners who cannot install solar directly on their property can buy or lease solar panels in an offsite, community solar farm. The generated electricity credits appear on the homeowner’s utility bills.

Net Metering – With net metering, excess solar electricity produced during the day flows back into the grid, spinning a home’s electricity meter backwards. This offsets power drawn from the grid at night. Net metering allows homeowners to maximize solar benefits.

For homeowners, installing solar provides energy bill savings, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, increases home resale value, and provides backup power in blackouts. Drawbacks can include high upfront costs, though these continue to fall. Overall, solar energy empowers homeowners to generate their own clean electricity.

Commercial Applications

Solar energy is increasingly being adopted by businesses and industry. Companies are installing solar photovoltaic systems on rooftops, parking garages, warehouses, and other facilities to offset electricity purchased from the grid. There are several key ways that commercial entities are utilizing solar:

Solar rooftops – Many companies are installing solar panels on their roofs and canopies to generate electricity and reduce utility bills. Solar rooftops can offset 20-40% or more of a building’s energy usage. They provide a hedge against rising electricity rates.

Parking canopies – Solar canopies are installed over parking lots and generate power while also providing shade. Parking structures are ideal for solar since they have large flat roof areas. Solar canopies can meet a significant portion of a company’s electricity needs.

Solar on warehouses – Warehouses, manufacturing plants and distribution centers have massive roof areas ideal for solar arrays. These large solar systems can provide 500kW or more of generating capacity.

There are many benefits for companies in adopting solar. It reduces energy costs and provides a hedge against utility rate hikes. Solar increases sustainability and meets corporate green goals. The systems have become very cost-effective with federal tax credits. And they can provide reliable power even during grid outages.

However, there are some downsides. The upfront installation cost can be high even with incentives. Available roof space may limit the system size. And solar may not make sense if electricity rates are very low. Overall though, solar provides significant advantages and ROI for most commercial applications.

Utility-Scale Solar

Utility-scale solar refers to large solar energy projects that feed into the electricity grid to supply power to a large number of customers. These projects involve installing solar panels and equipment over large plots of land, often hundreds or thousands of acres in size. The generated electricity is then connected to transmission lines to distribute the power.

The main types of utility-scale solar projects include:

Solar photovoltaic (PV) farms – arrays of ground-mounted or free-standing solar panels that convert sunlight into electricity.
Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants – use mirrors to concentrate sunlight to drive a heat engine and generator.
Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) plants – combine a solar thermal system with a natural gas turbine generator for enhanced efficiency.

The advantages of utility-scale solar include:

Economies of scale result in lower costs per watt compared to residential systems.
Large solar capacity can be added relatively quickly to meet rising electricity demand.

Solar output coincides with periods of peak daytime electricity usage.
Land can be leased rather than purchased, reducing upfront costs.
Solar PV has no fuel costs and low operating costs.

The disadvantages include:

Significant upfront capital expenditure is required.
Ideal sunny locations may be far from transmission infrastructure.

Solar output varies throughout the day and seasonally.
Large land areas are required, which can impact ecosystems.
Storage is needed to provide power when the sun isn’t shining.

Overall, utility-scale solar provides a clean, renewable source of electricity that can be scaled up to meet rising energy demands. The modularity of solar provides flexibility in project size and location. Advancements in energy storage and smart grid technology will help overcome solar’s variability. With costs continuing to fall, solar is becoming increasingly competitive for large-scale electricity generation.

Solar Energy Storage

Solar energy presents a unique challenge due to its intermittent availability. The sun only shines during daylight hours, and cloud cover and weather can further impact solar production. Energy storage allows solar power to be captured and used later, when solar panels are not actively producing electricity. Storage helps provide continuous solar power availability and offset day/night or weather-related variability.

There are two main approaches to storing solar energy – battery storage and thermal storage. Battery storage involves capturing excess solar electricity in batteries for use at a later time. Lithium-ion batteries are most commonly used, though research is ongoing into alternate battery chemistries. Thermal storage involves using solar heat to warm up materials, like molten salt, that can retain thermal energy for extended periods. The stored heat can be used to drive a turbine and generate electricity on demand.

Both battery and thermal storage allow solar power to be time-shifted for 24/7 use. They provide stability to the electrical grid by smoothing solar’s variable output. Storage also allows solar power to be dispatchable, available when needed most rather than just when the sun is shining. With sufficient storage capacity, solar-plus-storage systems can serve as baseload power plants. Energy storage is a key enabling technology for widespread solar adoption and transitioning to renewable energy.

Solar Energy Economics

The economics of solar energy have become increasingly favorable over the past decade. This is due to a combination of factors:

Decreasing costs – The average cost to install solar panels has dropped by over 70% since 2010, due to improvements in manufacturing and installation efficiencies.

Federal tax credits – There is currently a 26% federal tax credit available for residential solar installations, which helps offset the upfront costs.
Net metering – Most utilities allow net metering, which credits solar system owners for excess electricity sent back to the grid. This helps offset electricity purchased from the utility.
Incentives – Many states and utilities offer additional rebates and incentives to go solar, further reducing costs.

The payback period for a solar system varies greatly depending on location, system size, electricity rates, and incentives. On average, the payback period for a residential solar system is 6-12 years. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from solar is now on par or cheaper than building new coal and nuclear plants in most regions.

Utility-scale solar farms can produce solar power at $0.03 – $0.05 per kWh, competitive with natural gas. The ongoing fuel costs of solar are zero compared to fossil fuels, providing a hedge against fuel price volatility.

The economic proposition of switching to solar energy continues to become more compelling. With increased scale and advances in storage technology, solar has the potential to displace a significant portion of fossil fuel electricity generation in the coming decades.

Environmental Impact

Solar energy has significant advantages over fossil fuels when it comes to environmental impact. Fossil fuel extraction and combustion releases high amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide that contribute to climate change. Solar panels produce energy without any direct carbon emissions during operation. The carbon footprint of solar is estimated to be 30-50 times lower per kWh than coal and natural gas.

Solar panels do require energy to manufacture, transport and install. But the carbon payback period – the time required for a solar panel to generate the energy used in its production – is typically 1-4 years. After this payback period, solar produces clean energy for decades.

While solar farms do take up significant land space, the land inbetween and beneath panels can still be used for agriculture and grazing. Rooftop solar allows buildings to produce clean energy without using any additional land. Whereas fossil fuels destroy large swathes of land during extraction and transport of coal, oil and gas.

There are concerns about toxicity and disposal of chemicals and materials used in solar panels. Polysilicon production generates silicon dust waste. Panel production uses some hazardous chemicals like sulfuric acid and phosphine gas. And panels contain small amounts of toxic metals like lead and cadmium. Proper solar panel recycling processes are important to recover materials and prevent hazardous waste. Most panels are estimated to be recycled today.

In summary, analysis shows solar has far lower lifetime carbon emissions and land-use requirements than fossil fuels. There are toxicity issues around solar panel production and disposal. But the fast-dropping carbon payback times and maturing recycling industry help minimize the impact relative to fossil fuels.