What Are Solar Panels Filled With?

Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, are devices that convert sunlight into electricity. The photovoltaic effect was first observed in 1839 by French physicist Edmond Becquerel. The first functional solar cells made from selenium were developed in the 1880s. While the early solar cells were only able to convert less than 1% of the sunlight into electricity, modern solar panels can have efficiencies of over 20%.

Solar panels are made up of many individual solar cells wired together. Each solar cell is made of semiconductor materials, usually silicon, that absorb photons from sunlight and release electrons. The electrons move toward positively charged strips on the cell, generating an electric current. This direct current (DC) electricity generated from the solar cells can be used to power electrical loads or fed into inverters to produce alternating current (AC) electricity compatible with the grid.

There are a few main types of solar panels used today:

• Monocrystalline silicon – Made from a single crystal of silicon, most efficient but most expensive
• Polycrystalline silicon – Made from fragments of silicon crystals, lower efficiency than monocrystalline but cheaper
• Thin-film – Made by depositing semiconductor layers on substrates like glass or plastic, lower efficiencies but cheaper and more flexible

Solar Cell Materials

The most common material used in solar panels is silicon. Silicon is abundant, non-toxic, and has favorable electrical properties that make it well-suited for converting sunlight into electricity. Solar cells made from crystalline silicon wafers represent about 90% of the solar panel market today.

However, researchers have explored other semiconductor materials for solar cells, seeking to improve efficiency or reduce costs. Two promising thin-film solar cell materials are cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS).

Silicon has the advantage of being inexpensive, safe, and well-understood. But silicon cells tend to be relatively inefficient at converting sunlight to electricity (15-20% efficiency typically). They also require a thick layer of material to absorb sunlight.

Thin-film solar cells like CdTe and CIGS can reach similar efficiencies as silicon, using about 1/100th the amount of semiconductor material. This reduces material costs. However, CdTe has raised some environmental concerns due to the toxicity of cadmium. CIGS cells are less established commercially.

Overall, each solar cell material has its tradeoffs between efficiency, cost, and other factors. Silicon remains the dominant choice for now, but alternatives like CdTe and CIGS are gaining ground for niche applications.

Anatomy of a Solar Panel

Solar panels are made up of many individual solar cells wired together. The key components of a solar panel include:

• Solar cells – The solar cells are the heart of the panel, made of silicon or thin films that convert sunlight into electricity.

• Glass cover – Solar panels have a clear anti-reflective glass cover that allows sunlight to reach the solar cells while protecting them from the elements.

• Frame – Panels are enclosed in a metal frame, usually aluminum, for structural support and ease of installation.

• Junction box – The junction box on the back contains electrical connections and terminals to link panels together.

• Wiring and interconnects – Thin wires connect the individual solar cells together into strings, which are then connected in parallel to produce higher currents.

The cells are carefully wired together and encapsulated between the glass and backing material during manufacturing. The junction box neatly gathers all the internal wiring leads for connecting multiple panels into an array.

Silicon Solar Cells

The most common type of solar cells are made from silicon. Silicon is an abundant, non-toxic material that is well-suited for capturing and converting sunlight into electricity. There are two main types of silicon solar cells: monocrystalline and polycrystalline.

Monocrystalline silicon cells are made from a single continuous crystal of silicon. The manufacturing process involves growing cylindrical ingots of single crystal silicon and then slicing the ingots into very thin wafers. Monocrystalline cells have a distinct black color and perfectly even surface. They have the highest efficiency rates, typically around 15-20%, but are more expensive to produce than polycrystalline cells.

Polycrystalline silicon, also called multicrystalline silicon, is made from molten silicon cast into ingots. The ingots are then cooled and cut into square wafers. The random crystal structure gives polycrystalline cells a speckled blue color and uneven surface. They are less efficient than monocrystalline, with typical rates of 13-16%, but are cheaper to manufacture.

Overall, silicon solar cells offer good efficiency and stability. Their performance degrades slowly over time. Both mono and poly types have lifespans over 25 years. Silicon is a mature solar technology that continues to be widely used and researched to further improve efficiency and lower costs.

Thin Film Solar Cells

Thin film solar cells use ultra-thin layers of semiconductor material, typically only a few micrometers thick, as the light absorbing active layer. The most common thin film materials are cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), and amorphous silicon (a-Si). Thin film panels have some key advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional silicon solar panels.

On the manufacturing side, thin film solar cells require much less raw material than silicon panels, making them cheaper and faster to produce. The thin semiconductor layers are deposited directly onto substrates like glass, metal or plastic in a high-volume roll-to-roll process similar to printing newspapers. This makes thin film production lines simpler, more automated and scalable compared to the complex batch processing required for silicon ingot growth and wafering.

In terms of performance, thin film solar panels tend to be less efficient at converting sunlight to electricity than silicon, with typical module efficiencies of around 15-20% compared to 15-25% for crystalline silicon. However, thin films absorb light more efficiently, so they can produce more electricity in low and diffuse light conditions. They also tend to degrade less over time compared to silicon panels. Overall, thin film panels typically have a lower cost per watt, making them ideal for large utility-scale installations where space is abundant.

Encapsulation and Protection

Solar panels need durable encapsulation and protection to ensure the sensitive silicon solar cells can withstand many years of outdoor exposure. The key role of encapsulation is to protect the solar cells from the elements and prevent moisture ingress or UV degradation.

Solar manufacturers use transparent encapsulant materials like ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) that are laminated between the solar cells and the top glass cover. EVA encapsulants provide excellent light transmission while protecting against UV rays and preventing moisture ingress into the panel over 25+ year lifetimes. Most commercial solar panels use some formulation of EVA encapsulant.

The top surface of a solar panel features a tempered glass cover, usually 3-4mm thick, that provides structural rigidity and impact resistance. The backing of the panel is also reinforced, commonly using a tedlar or polymer backsheet. This combination of glass on the top surface and reinforced backing provides the structure to protect the silicon cells and copper interconnects inside the panel.

Proper encapsulation and structural reinforcement is critical for solar panel durability. The materials protect the sensitive silicon and electronics, provide electrical isolation between cells, enable warranted 25+ year lifetimes, and ensure the panels can withstand decades of outdoor exposure to moisture, UV light, and the elements.

Wiring and Interconnects

Solar panels contain copper wiring to electrically connect all of the solar cells together. Thin strips of copper ribbon or wire are soldered between each cell to allow current to flow. The copper enables electricity generated from each cell to be collected and output from the entire panel.

Bypass diodes are also wired across groups of cells. These diodes provide a bypass route for current if a cell is shaded or damaged, preventing reverse voltage buildup that could cause cell overheating. Bypass diodes help minimize power loss and damage in the event of partial shading or cell failure.

The wiring runs out to a junction box on the back of the solar panel. This junction box contains terminals to connect external cables for electrical output. The junction box provides a simple way to link multiple panels together into an array, as well as connect the array to inverters, charge controllers, batteries, or other components of a solar system.

Panel Assembly Process

The solar panel assembly process takes all of the components manufactured earlier and assembles them into a complete solar panel ready for installation. This process typically involves laminating the layers together, framing the panel, final assembly of components, and testing/certification to ensure quality standards are met.

Laminating is a critical step in protecting the solar cells and internal components. The silicon cells, encapsulant material, backsheet, and front glass are stacked in layers and fed into a solar laminator machine. This machine uses heat and pressure to bond all the layers together into one cohesive panel unit. The laminate material seals and isolates the silicon cells and prevents moisture and oxygen from corroding them over time.

After lamination, an aluminum frame is usually attached to the perimeter of the panel. This frame provides structural rigidity and allows the panel to be securely mounted to racks and rails during installation. Some frameless panel designs are also available, but framed panels are more common.

Junction boxes, cables, and connectors are integrated onto the back of the panel during final assembly. These allow the solar energy to be collected from each panel and transferred into wires that interconnect panels together. Safety features like grounding points and bypass diodes may also be added.

Before shipping to customers, solar panel quality control and testing takes place. This often involves inspection of workmanship, testing of electrical functionality, measurement of power output, wet leakage current tests, mechanical load testing, and other checks to ensure standards are met. Certifications like IEC, UL, etc. may be required depending on the target market.

Installing and Maintaining Panels

Solar panels need to be properly installed and maintained to ensure optimal performance and longevity. Here are some key considerations for installing and caring for solar panels:

Mounting Methods

Solar panels are typically mounted using racking systems on rooftops, ground mounts, or solar carports and canopies. Racking systems securely attach the panels at the proper angle to maximize sun exposure. Installers will evaluate the site and determine the best mounting method based on factors like roof type, wind/snow loads, space available, and local building codes.

Cleaning and Upkeep

It’s important to keep solar panels free of debris, snow, and dirt buildup that can cause shading and reduce efficiency. Panels can be cleaned by gently wiping with a soft brush, cloth, or compressed air. Avoid using abrasive cleaners or brushes that could scratch the glass. Check for damage, wear, vegetation overgrowth, and other issues during cleaning. Most solar panels require very little maintenance if kept clean.

Safety Considerations

Proper safety gear and precautions should be used when installing or cleaning solar panels on rooftops or elevated mounts. Hazards include electric shock, falls, and injury from improper lifting. Only experienced solar professionals should install panel systems. For cleaning, use caution when working at heights and power down the solar array. Rooftop systems may require harnesses, ropes, and fall protection.

Recycling and Disposal

Solar panels can be recycled at the end of their roughly 30-year lifespan. Reclaiming materials through recycling allows manufacturers to avoid mining new resources and reduces waste. The main components that can be recycled from solar panels are aluminum frames, glass, silver, copper, silicon, and semiconductors. Proper recycling recovers about 80% of a panel’s materials for reuse.

It’s important that solar panels are disposed of properly at end-of-life rather than ending up in landfills. Some installers and manufacturers will take back old solar panels for recycling. There are also specialized solar panel recycling companies that safely extract and reuse materials. Recycling prevents hazardous materials like lead and cadmium from leaching into the environment. Most areas have regulations prohibiting disposal of solar panels in regular trash.

Overall, recycling solar panels reduces energy usage, waste, and environmental impact compared to manufacturing brand new components. With solar panel installations growing exponentially around the world, recycling will only become more crucial over time. Consumers should do their research to find responsible solar companies that provide recycling options at end-of-life.